21 July 2012

Mekanisme Terjadinya Remodeling Ventrikel Kiri

Gagal jantung adalah masalah kesehatan yang sering dijumpai. Remodeling jantung merupakan awal dari progreimagessivitas gagal jantung dan mencerminkan adanya gangguan fungsi ventrikel yang pada akhirnya menimbulkan prognosis yang buruk pada pasien.

Remodeling ventrikel kiri merupakan suatu prediktor morbiditas dan mortalitas pasien infark miokard. Remodeling ventrikel kiri berhubungan dengan disfungsi dan dilatasi ventrikel kiri. Remodeling terjadi akibat perubahan struktural intra dan ekstraseluler miokardium dan mengubah struktur dinding ventrikel kiri.

Remodeling ventrikel kiri dideskripsikan sebagai gangguan anatomi ventrikel kiri meliputi perubahan kardiomiosit, perubahan volume miosit dan komponen non miosit pada miokardium serta perubahan geometri dan arsitektur ruang ventrikel kiri.

Remodeling jantung dapat diakibatkan oleh iskemi, kelebihan volume/tekanan, infeksi, inflamasi, perlukaan mekanik dan rangsangan sitokin serta enzim. Infiltrasi sel inflamasi ke miokardium menyebabkan pelepasan sitokin, kemokin, enzim dan growth factor yang berperan dalam proses remodeling.

Banyak reaksi biologis yang terlibat pada proses remodeling setelah terjadinya iskemi seperti kematian kardiomiosit, stres oksidatif dan reaksi inflamasi ke daerah jejas, reaksi kardiodepresif oleh karena Reactive Oxygene Species (ROS) dan sitokin inflamasi, perubahan matriks ektraseluler diikuti aktivasi Matrix Metallo Proteinase (MMP), perubahan struktur miokardium pada respon stres mekanik, sintesis kolagen dan fibrosis miokardial. Proses tersebut saling berhubungan satu sama lain dan perubahan proses dari reaksi akut ke kronik. Remodeling ventrikel kiri pada akhirnya berubah menjadi dilatasi ventrikel kiri yang menentukan prognosis penderita infark miokard.

Pada tikus coba yang mengalami infark miokard akut, remodeling ventrikel kiri mengalami beberapa fase. Fase-fase tersebut antara lain :

Fase penyembuhan jejas (0-7 hari pasca infark miokard)

Ketika terjadi infark miokard akut, jaringan ventrikel kiri dalam keadaan hipoksia dan nekrosis. Nekrosis adalah bentuk mendadak dari kematian sel yang timbul pada kerusakan kardiomiosit yang parah. Selain karena penyakit jantung iskemik nekrosis juga dapat timbul pada jejas miokardial, toksin, infeksi dan inflamasi. Sel yang mengalami nekrosis mengeluarkan komponen-komponen intra seluler seperti Heat Shock Protein (HSP), ROS dan fibronektin yang selanjutnya mengaktifkan respon imun dan MMP.

Pada tahap ini MMP teraktivasi mendegradasi matriks ekstra seluler yang ada, mengganggu susunan kolagen dan membiarkan sel inflamasi seperti neutrofil dan makrofag bermigrasi ke jaringan infark untuk membersihkan kardiomiosit yang mengalami nekrosis. Selanjutnya sel inflamasi menghasilkan MMP, sitokin (Tumor Necrosis Factor-α, InterLeukin -1, IL-6, IL-10), growth factors (Transforming Growth Factor β) dan faktor angiogenik (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A, Fibroblast Growth Factor ).

Aktivasi MMP ternyata dapat juga menimbulkan gangguan pada penyembuhan infark seperti ruptur kardiak. Hal ini terjadi akibat degradasi komponen matrik ekstra seluler yang berlebihan dan gangguan pada jaringan yang menghubungkan kardiomiosit dengan matrik sehingga menimbulkan ketidaksejajaran dan tumpang tindihnya kardiomiosit. Selanjutnya tidak saja dapat menimbulkan ruptur kardiak tetapi menyebabkan disfungsi dan dilatasi ventrikel kiri.

Granulasi dan fase remodeling awal (7-21 hari pasca infark miokard)

Pembentukan jaringan granulasi merupakan tahap yang penting dalam perbaikan infark. Makrofag memfagosit miokard nekrosis dan mensekresikan TGF-β. Selanjutnya TGF-β mengubah fibroblast menjadi miofibroblas.

Miofibroblast adalah fibroblast dengan mikrofilamen α-Smooth Muscle Actin (SMA) sehingga mempunyai daya kontraktilitas. Miofibroblast berproliferasi secara cepat dan terakumulasi di daerah infark miokardium dan memproduksi kolagen fibriler tipe I dan III. Miofibroblas merupakan kontributor utama dalam pembentukan fibrosis.

Jaringan nekrosis diganti oleh jaringan granulasi, suatu jaringan sementara yang berisi matrik kaya kolagen, proteoglikan dan matrik ektra seluler seperti osteopontin dan fibronektin. Matrik sementara direabsoprsi diganti oleh jaringan fibrosis. Proses fibrosis yang berlebihan akan mengganggu metabolisme miokardial terutama persediaan oksigen dan mengganggu pembuangan sampah metabolik sel sehingga menyebabkan gangguan fungsi miokardium. Fibrosis berlebihan meningkatkan protein matriks ekstraseluler seperti kolagen sehingga menurunkan elastisitas jantung dan kemudian berefek pada kontraksi jantung.

Selanjutnya terjadi apoptosis pada sel jaringan granulasi. Apoptosis adalah kematian sel terprogram untuk menghilangkan sel terpilih yang melibatkan kode genetik untuk kematian sel tersebut. Pada keadaan patologi seperti iskemik akut atau kardiomiopati dilatasi, program apoptosis menjadi abnormal dan menyebabkan kematian sel yang tidak disengaja. Banyak faktor yang memicu apoptosis termasuk Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) dan sitokin inflamasi seperti TNF-α dan FasL.

Ada dua jalur yang berperan pada apoptosis yaitu jalur intrinsik melalui mitokondria dan jalur ekstrinsik melalui FasL dan TNF-α. Pada jalur instrinsik, Bax dan Bak, suatu agen pro apoptosis, meningkatkan permeabilitas membran luar mitokondria sehingga menyebabkan dilepaskannya protein seperti sitokrom C dari ruang inter membran ke sitoplasma. Jalur ekstrinsik diaktifkan oleh ligand kematian seperti TNF-α dan FasL ketika berikatan dengan reseptornya di membran plasma. Kedua jalur tersebut mengaktifkan cystein aspartic acid-specific proteases (caspase) yang kemudian menginduksi apoptosis.

Sel yang mengalami apoptosis meningkatkan produksi sitokin anti inflamasi seperti IL-10 dan TGF-β yang memicu fase transisi dari fase inflamasi menjadi fibrosis. Transforming Growth Factor β menurunkan adesi leukosit dan merangsang proliferasi fibroblast dan produksi matriks ekstra seluler.

Kardiomiosit non infark akan mengalami hipertropi. Hipertropi jantung timbul akibat respon stres mekanik kelebihan beban dan tekanan.

Fase remodeling lanjut (> 21 hari pasca infark miokard)

Remodeling ventrikel kiri terus berlanjut berbulan-bulan hingga bertahun-tahun setelah mengalami jejas akut. Gangguan pada miosit jantung  seperti akibat kerusakan iskemi menyebabkan beban kerja jantung meningkat. Beberapa jalur sinyal sitokin pro inflamasi teraktivasi seperti TNF α, IL-6 dan IL-1. Sitokin tersebut menimbulkan stres oksidatif yang kemudian meningkatkan ROS. Reactive Oxygen Species merangsang terjadinya hipertropi miosit, reekspresi fetal gene program dan apoptosis. fetal gene program adalah gen yang pada saat manusia lahir tidak terekspresikan. Gen ini jika teraktivasi akan menurunkan ekspresi sejumlah gen lain yang diekspresikan pada jantung dewasa normal dan berefek terjadinya disfungsi kontraktilitas miosit. Sebaliknya ROS yang berlebihan akan merangsang NF-κB untuk mengekspresikan sitokin seperti TNF α, IL-1, IL-6, MCP dan ICAM. Tumor Necrosis Factor-α dan IL-1 merangsang makrofag dan neutrofil untuk memproduksi MMP-2 dan MMP-8. Matrix Metalloproteinase tersebut mendegradasi matriks ekstra seluler untuk mempercepat pergantian matriks ekstra seluler. Degradasi matriks ekstra seluler tidak hanya terjadi pada daerah infark saja tetapi juga menjalar melewati batas infark (infarct expansion) sehingga dinding ventrikel kiri menjadi tipis dan dilatasi. Makrofag juga merangsang fibroblast untuk menghasilkan jaringan fibrosis pada ventrikel kiri. Terjadi penurunan kontraktilitas ventrikel kiri dan penurunan curah jantung yang pada akhirnya menyebabkan timbulnya gagal jantung.

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